an online book by David Gurteen
An argument is a series of sentences, statements, or propositions some of which are called premises and one is the conclusion. The purpose of an argument is to give reasons for one's conclusion via justification, explanation, and/or persuasion.
Arguments are intended to determine or show the degree of truth or acceptability of another statement called a conclusion. The process of crafting or delivering arguments, argumentation, can be studied from three main perspectives: the logical, the dialectical and the rhetorical perspective.
In logic, an argument is usually expressed not in natural language but in a symbolic formal language, and it can be defined as any group of propositions of which one is claimed to follow from the others through deductively valid inferences that preserve truth from the premises to the conclusion. This logical perspective on argument is relevant for scientific fields such as mathematics and computer science. Logic is the study of the forms of reasoning in arguments and the development of standards and criteria to evaluate arguments. Deductive arguments can be valid, and the valid ones can be sound: in a valid argument, premises necessitate the conclusion, even if one or more of the premises is false and the conclusion is false; in a sound argument, true premises necessitate a true conclusion. Inductive arguments, by contrast, can have different degrees of logical strength: the stronger or more cogent the argument, the greater the probability that the conclusion is true, the weaker the argument, the lesser that probability. The standards for evaluating non-deductive arguments may rest on different or additional criteria than truth—for example, the persuasiveness of so-called "indispensability claims" in transcendental arguments, the quality of hypotheses in retroduction, or even the disclosure of new possibilities for thinking and acting.
In dialectics, and also in a more colloquial sense, an argument can be conceived as a social and verbal means of trying to resolve, or at least contend with, a conflict or difference of opinion that has arisen or exists between two or more parties. For the rhetorical perspective, the argument is constitutively linked with the context, in particular with the time and place in which the argument is located. From this perspective, the argument is evaluated not just by two parties (as in a dialectical approach) but also by an audience. In both dialectic and rhetoric, arguments are used not through formal but through natural language. Since classical antiquity, philosophers and rhetoricians have developed lists of argument types in which premises and conclusions are connected in informal and defeasible ways.
Credit: Wikipedia - argumentNo truth is without some mixture of error, and no error so false but that it possesses no element of truth. If a man is in too big a hurry to give up an error, he is liable to give up some truth with it, and in accepting the arguments of the other man he … Continue reading No Truth Is Without Some Mixture of Error by Wilbur Wright
Gurteen Knowledge Blog September 4, 2022, 10:35I am working on a post on so-called steelmanning for my blook. You may be familiar with the concept of a strawman argument, often referred to as a straw man. In such arguments, we are more concerned with winning the fight than getting at the truth, and we construct a … Continue reading Construct Steel Arguments Not Straw Ones We need to learn to argue more effectively
We don’t have a good word for engaging in a non-hostile disagreement with the shared aim of moving the participants towards a new understanding, better decision or new idea. Debate implies a competition with winners and losers. Argument comes tinged with animosity. Dialogue is too bland. Dialectic is too obscure. We talk about argument as … Continue reading We Don’t Have a Good Word for Engaging in a Non-hostile Disagreement Ian Leslie
In a conversation the participants are not engaged in an inquiry or a debate; there is no ‘truth’ to be discovered, no proposition to be proved, no conclusion sought. They are not concerned to inform, to persuade, or to refute one another, and therefore the cogency of their utterances does not depend upon their all … Continue reading In a Conversation the Participants Are Not Engaged in an Inquiry Michael Oakeshott
Imagine a culture where an argument is viewed as a dance, the participants are seen as performers, and the goal is to perform in a balanced and aesthetically pleasing way. In such a culture, people would view arguments differently, experience them differently, carry them out differently, and talk about them differently. But we would probably … Continue reading Imagine a Culture Where an Argument Is Viewed as a Dance George Lakoff and Mark Johnsen
Productive disagreement depends on how people feel about each other. We spend a lot of time thinking about how to argue, and not enough on how to shape the relationship that will define how the engagement goes. It’s often said that in order to disagree well, people need to put emotions aside and think purely … Continue reading Productive Disagreement Depends on How People Feel About Each Other Ian Leslie
In this book, The Argument Culture, Deborah Tannen examines how we communicate in public — in the media, politics, courtrooms, and classrooms — letting us see in a new way forces that have powerfully shaped our lives. The war on drugs, the battle of the sexes, political turf combat — in the argument culture, war … Continue reading The Argument Culture: Stopping America’s War of Words by Deborah Tannen (1999)
Our public interactions have become more and more like having an argument with a spouse. Conflict can’t be avoided in our public lives any more than we can avoid conflict with people we love. One of the great strengths of our society is that we can express these conflicts openly. But just as spouses have … Continue reading Public Discourse Is Like Having a Fight Deborah Tannen
Conversation is the vehicle for change. We test our ideas. We hear our own voice in a concert with another. And inside those pauses of listening, we approach new territories of thought. A good argument, call it a discussion, frees us. Words fly out of our mouths like threatened birds. Once released, they may never … Continue reading Conversation Is the Vehicle for Change Terry Tempest Williams
Gurteen Knowledge Blog March 4, 2022, 16:05We need to see argument in a different light. An argument should not be seen as a hostile exchange or a fight but as a fun, enjoyable exchange of opinions. There should not be tears but laughter — no need for anger. When we argue with someone over a belief, … Continue reading We Need to See Argument in a Different Light Build a steel man and argue against that.
There is no conversation more boring than the one where everybody agrees. Credit: Michel de Montaigne Posts where this quotation is embedded Analyze Logical Fallacies Use the chatbot to analyze logical fallacies Artificial Intelligence and the Quest for Knowledge Exploring the parallels between Plato’s Phaedrus and the challenges of GenAI Chatbots as Critical Thinking Partners Stimulating critical thinking … Continue reading Boring Conversation Michel de Montaigne
Gurteen Knowledge Blog May 3, 2021, 11:37I used to have a good friend. We could talk about absolutely anything and had some incredible conversations. He died a few years ago, and I greatly miss him. What I liked about him, but at the same time, what annoyed me was that he was a contrarian. Whenever I … Continue reading The Value of a Contrarian Thinker They help you question your beliefs
Perhaps the essence of the Liberal outlook could be summed up in a new decalogue, not intended to replace the old one but only to supplement it. The Ten Commandments that, as a teacher, I should wish to promulgate, might be set forth as follows: Do not feel absolutely certain of anything. Do not think … Continue reading Bertrand Russell’s Ten Commandments for Critical Thinking Bertrand Russell
The Argumentative Theory of Human Reason | THUNK Reasoning was not designed to pursue the truth. Reasoning was designed by evolution to help us win arguments. Posts that link to this post Two Interesting Theories of Reason Social reasoning and the narrative paradigm What Are Cognitive Biases? Mistakes in reasoning, evaluating or rememberingTags: argument (35) | reasoning … Continue reading The Argumentative Theory of Human Reason Reasoning was designed by evolution to help us win arguments
Gurteen Knowledge Blog July 22, 2022, 14:36You may enjoy these three talks by Rory Stewart from the BBC Radio 4 Seriously series of audio documentaries and podcasts. In the talks, Rory looks at the history of argument and explores its importance and the fact that it is the foundation of our democracies and how we make … Continue reading The Long History of Argument A series of talks by Rory Stewart
Abstract Reasoning is generally seen as a means to improve knowledge and make better decisions. However, much evidence shows that reasoning often leads to epistemic distortions and poor decisions. This suggests that the function of reasoning should be rethought. Our hypothesis is that the function of reasoning is argumentative. It is to devise and evaluate … Continue reading Why Do Humans Reason? Arguments for an Argumentative Theory Hugo Mercier and Dan Sperber (2010)
The best argument against Democracy is a five-minute conversation with the average voter. Credit: Unknown but often misattributed to Winston Churchill Source: This quotation is usually attributed to Winston Churchill but there is no evidence he ever said it.Posts where this quotation is embedded Analyze Logical Fallacies Use the chatbot to analyze logical fallacies Artificial Intelligence and … Continue reading The Best Argument Against Democracy Misattributed to Winston Churchill
Narrative and Story ** Storytelling ** Close Pop-up all posts in this chapter The Narrative Paradigm is a theory proposed by Walter Fisher that posits all meaningful communication occurs via storytelling or reporting of events. The theory further claims that stories are more persuasive than arguments. The narrative paradigm helps explain how we can understand … Continue reading The Narrative Paradigm All meaningful communication occurs via storytelling or reporting of event
Analyze Assumptions and Biases Practice Analogical Thinking Close Pop-up all posts in this chapter Play Devil’s Advocate: Ask the chatbot to provide counterarguments or alternative perspectives to a particular stance. We can develop a more comprehensive understanding by examining an issue from multiple angles. Here’s an example of how to use the “Play Devil’s Advocate” … Continue reading Play Devil’s Advocate Ask the chatbot to provide counterarguments or alternative perspectives to a particular stance
Summarize Conflicting Perspectives Explore Hypothetical Scenarios Close Pop-up all posts in this chapter Deconstructing Arguments: Present an argument to the chatbot and ask it to break the argument down into its constituent premises and conclusion. This aids in understanding the structure of arguments and assessing their validity. Here’s an example of using the “Deconstructing Arguments” … Continue reading Deconstructing Arguments Use the chatbot to deconstruct arguments
What Is a Real Conversation? The Value of Conversation ** Close Pop-up all posts in this chapter Numerous words or phrases describe the varied forms of conversation and speech. This page lists some of the more common ones in alphabetic order. Posts that link to this post The Language of Conversation and Speech Digging into their … Continue reading The Language of Conversation and Speech Meanings of words describing conversation and speech
Open Mindedness ** Active Listening ** Close Pop-up all posts in this chapter Critical thinking objectively analyzes, evaluates, and synthesizes information to form a reasoned judgment or decision. It involves using logic and reasoning to examine assumptions, arguments, evidence, and alternative perspectives to arrive at well-informed and justified conclusions. If you can think, and speak, … Continue reading Critical Thinking ** Analyzing information and arguments to make sound judgments and decisions
Circles of Engagement ** What Would Make a Better World? Close Pop-up all posts in this chapter The term “signal-to-noise ratio” is a useful metaphor when discussing the pollution of the information ecosystem with misinformation, disinformation, or situations where much of the information available is irrelevant. A signal-to-noise ratio is a measure most frequently used … Continue reading Signal-to-noise Ratio The ratio of useful or true information to false or irrelevant data
Conversation Is More Than Communication The Jazz of Conversations Close Pop-up all posts in this chapter We often say we need to debate something – especially in the political world – when what we really need is a dialogue. But what is the difference between dialogue and debate? Dialogue is collaborative: two or more sides … Continue reading The Difference Between Dialogue and Debate ** In dialogue, finding common ground is the goal while in debate, winning is the goal
Knowledge and Information ** The Knowledge Delusion Close Pop-up all posts in this chapter The argumentative theory of reasoning proposes that reason did not evolve to help us to reason individually but to reason together – in other words, socially. Reasoning is generally seen as the process of thinking about something to help us come … Continue reading The Argumentative Theory of Human Reason We did not evolve to reason individually but to reason socially
Eat with Others Ask Questions ** Close Pop-up all posts in this chapter Construct steel positions: We often employ a straw position to help win a disagreement when we should use a steel one. Straw Positions You may be familiar with the concept of a strawman position, often referred to as a straw man. To … Continue reading Construct Steel Positions Not Straw Ones We need to learn to argue more effectively to get at the truth
Cognitive Diversity Turn-taking in Conversation Close Pop-up all posts in this chapter We all have our beliefs. Some held firmly; some held not so tightly. Some true, some false Some we are prepared to change. For others, we are prepared to die. One of my firmly held beliefs is that if we are going to … Continue reading Contra-conversations **
Knowledge Café Principle: Engage in Small Groups Introduction: Knowledge Café Principles Close Pop-up all posts in this chapter Principle: Dialogue, not debate. Knowledge Café conversations are about making sense of a situation, sharing information, better understanding each other, and building relationships — in other words, they are about dialogue — not debate. This is not … Continue reading Knowledge Café Principle: Dialogue Not Debate Be prepared to emerge a slightly different person
Conversare Events The Dérive Close Pop-up all posts in this chapter Debates are an essential part of communication, allowing for the exchange of differing viewpoints. However, understanding their various forms and purposes can be challenging. By exploring the structure and significance of debates, we can better appreciate their role in public discourse and critical thinking. … Continue reading Understanding Debates Argument is meant to reveal the truth, not to create it
The Dérive Dialogic Organization Development Close Pop-up all posts in this chapter The meaning of dialogue The word dialogue has several meanings depending on the context in which it is used. If you look up the word in most dictionaries, you will find definitions like this. A conversation between two or more persons. e.g. A … Continue reading Dialogue Dialogue is a disciplined form of conversation
Speak with Less Conviction Reduce Emailing and Texting ** Close Pop-up all posts in this chapter Disagree constructively: Disagreement is an inevitable part of life. Most of the time, we do it poorly. We need to learn to disagree constructively. How do we go about it? A simple disagreement hierarchy provides guidance. Disagreement is an … Continue reading Disagree Constructively How to disagree well
The Power of Team Huddles Ongoing Performance Conversations Close Pop-up all posts in this chapter The Oracy Lab is an experimental space for exploring the power and possibilities of conversations and spoken communication for conveying meaning and co-creating a deeper understanding of the complexity and dynamics of the world. Oracy is the ability to speak … Continue reading The Oracy Lab An experimental space for exploring the power and possibilities of conversations
Become a Conversation Architect Rhetoric Close Pop-up all posts in this chapter In education, considerable emphasis is placed on numeracy and literacy — understanding and working with numbers and reading and writing. But what about the capacity to listen and to speak? Why is so little importance attached to oracy? Is the ability to hold … Continue reading Oracy The ability to express oneself in and understand spoken language
Oracy What Is the Difference Between Rhetoric and Oracy? Close Pop-up all posts in this chapter Rhetoric is often construed as insincere or meaningless language that sounds clever. This is an unduly negative perspective. Rhetoric is a critical cognitive and communication skill. Introduction Simply put, the purpose of rhetoric is to influence people through speech … Continue reading Rhetoric To influence people through speech or writing
Rhetoric Introduction: the Power of Conversation Close Pop-up all posts in this chapter On the face of it, rhetoric and oracy would seem the same, but although they have much in common, they have some significant differences. What is the difference between rhetoric and oracy? At first thought, the two ideas may seem the same … Continue reading What Is the Difference Between Rhetoric and Oracy? Rhetoric is monologue, oracy is dialogue
